PhD dissertation accepted at the Graduate Programme in History, York University, Ontario. During World War II, three battalions of the Nigeria Regiment fought against Fascist Italy in the Ethiopian campaign. To prevent any united opposition to its authority, the British adopted a divide-and-rule policy, keeping Nigerian groups separate from one another as much as possible. [19] This scenario provided an opportunity for naval expeditions and reconnaissance throughout the region. [11] In 1891, the African Banking Corporation founded the Bank of British West Africa in Lagos.[33]. In case of resistance by one of its friends the other would join hands to mount formidable resistance against colonial rule e.g. Please let us discuss the brave roles of this groups and peoples. By extending the elective principle and by providing for a central government with a Council of Ministers, the Macpherson Constitution gave renewed impetus to party activity and to political participation at the national level. Formal diplomatic relations were established with the opening of the American Embassy in Lagos and of the Nigerian Embassy in Washington, both on 1 October 1960, the same day which Nigeria acquired its independence from British rule. Economic hardship caused by the war certainly underlay and even provoked resistance against the colonial authorities. The . Its residents were employed in official capacities and were active in business. [77] Its revenue quickly increased, from 4,424 in 1901 to 274,989 in 1910. In consideration of the foregoing, the said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves not to interfere with any of the native laws or customs of the country, consistently with the maintenance of order and good government [and] agree to pay native owners of land a reasonable amount for any portion they may require. The NPC platform emphasized the integrity of the north, its traditions, religion and social order. We bind ourselves not to have any intercourse with any strangers or foreigners except through the said national African Company (Limited), and we give the said National African Company (Limited) full power to exclude all other strangers and foreigners from their territory at their discretion. Nigeria's first nationalist movements appeared in the 1920s, and resistance to colonial rule grew over the next three decades. Native institutions were utilized and interference with local customs kept to a minimum, although the British did not always understand the local customs. The Southern Protectorate financed itself from the outset, with revenue increasing from 361,815 to 1,933,235 over the same period. A third type of organisation that was more pointedly political was the youth or student group, which became the vehicle of intellectuals and professionals. This rate rose to 20,000 per year in the last quarter of the century. Jaja of Opobo allied with hrs old friends namely Alobo and Onaba to resist the British colonialists in the Niger Delta states. Before the discovery of oil in 1956, Nigeria's resources were the main focus for the British Empire, and this was primarily because Nigeria was rich in agricultural wealth and other natural resources, such as rubber and copper. [74] But with the advancement and efficiency of colonial transportation networks, it was only a matter of time before the disease began to spread into the interior. Several churches were built to serve the Edo community and a small number of African converts. Their common denominators tended to be based on newly assertive ethnic consciousness, particularly that of the Yoruba and Igbo. The company negotiated treaties with Sokoto, Gwandu and Nupe that were interpreted as guaranteeing exclusive access to trade in return for the payment of annual tribute. At first, the trade centered around West Central Africa, now the Congo. The pace of constitutional change accelerated after the promulgation of the Richards Constitution. resistance to British invasion and colonial rule so as to close that vacuum created by the 'majority syndrome' approach. As the emirs settled more and more into their role as reliable agents of indirect rule, colonial authorities were content to maintain the status quo, particularly in religious matters. After the 1930s, political activities focused primarily on ways to end British rule. Then they resisted the policy as much as possible. September 1996. Most Europeans tended to overlook their own differences and were surprised and shocked that Nigerians wanted to develop new denominations independent of European control. By. Officials of the Sokoto Caliphate considered these treaties quite differently; from their perspective, the British were granted only extraterritorial rights that did not prevent similar arrangements with the Germans and the French and certainly did not surrender sovereignty. of British Colonial Nigeria. Early nationalists tended to ignore Nigeria as the focus of patriotism. British colonialism created Nigeria, but did little to make it a viable, stable, self-sustaining national entity. Updated: 11/12/2021 Create an account The Journal of Modern African Studies, 8(04), 563. doi:10.1017/s0022278x00023909, This page was last edited on 30 January 2023, at 05:21. Nigeria (/ n a d r i / ny-JEER-ee-), officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa.It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea to the south in the Atlantic Ocean.It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi), and with a population of over 225 million, it is the most populous country in Africa, and the world's . They gathered information which was needed for policy-making in administration. The appointment of Joseph Chamberlain as colonial secretary in 1895 especially marked a shift towards new territorial ambitions of the British Empire. Northern leaders committed to modernization were also firmly connected to the traditional power structure. Thanks. [32] This included a river fleet which it used for retaliatory attacks on uncooperative villages. [11], Britain's imperialistic posture became more aggressive towards the end of the century. Broadening political participation and expanding educational opportunities and other social services also were viewed as threats to the status quo. But by providing for comparable regional governments exercising broad legislative powers, which could not be overridden by the newly established 185-seat federal House of Representatives, the Macpherson Constitution also gave a significant boost to regionalism. These schools would teach "the basic principles that would and should regulate character and conduct". The similarity between the federal and regional constitutions was deceptive, however, and the conduct of public affairs reflected wide differences among the regions. European slave trading from West Africa began before 1650, with people taken at a rate of about 3,000 per year. The central government, presided over by the governor-general and accountable to the secretary for the colonies in London, was more powerful but distant from the people. In 1850, the British created a "Court of Equity" at Bonny, overseen by Beecroft, which would deal with trade disputes. . [27] To produce all this oil, the economy of the southern region crossed over from mostly subsistence to the production of palm oil as a cash crop.[28]. The conference drafted the terms of a new constitution. Later Nigerian troops were sent to East Africa. Alan Lennox-Boyd, M.P., the British Secretary of State for the Colonies. The pulpits of the independent congregations became avenues for the free expression of critics of colonial rule. The southern nationalists were inspired by a variety of sources, including such prominent American-based activists as Marcus Garvey and W.E.B. Ist October, 2010, marks The 50th anniversary of Nigeria's independence from imperial Britain. [42], The British had difficulty conquering Igboland, which lacked a central political organisation. It, therefore, hired native intermediaries who could conduct diplomacy, trade and intelligence work in the local area. The CMS initially promoted Africans to responsible positions in the mission field; for instance, they appointed Samuel Ajayi Crowther as the first Anglican Bishop of the Niger. The said National African Company (Limited) bind themselves to protect the said King and Chiefs from the attacks of any neighbouring tribes (Ibid.). It also means foreign rule on foreign lands. The search for oil, begun in 1908 and abandoned a few years later, was revived in 1937 by Shell and British Petroleum. [51], Guidelines for running the Nigerian colony were established in 1898 by the Niger Committee, chaired by the Earl of Selborne, in 1898. "Nigerian Forces Comforts Fund, 19401947: 'The Responsibility of the Nigerian Government to Provide Funds for the Welfare of Its Soldiers'. The most dramatic event having a long-term effect on Nigeria's economic development was the discovery and exploitation of petroleum deposits. The British, like other newcomers to the slave trade, found . Indigenous responses to imperialism during the period of 1750-1900 varied widely depending on the specific group of people and the imperial power they were interacting with. Trained as an army officer, he had served in India, Egypt and East Africa, where he expelled Arab slave traders from Nyasaland and established British presence in Uganda. In the year 1901, Nigeria officially became a part of the huge British Empire. From 1815 to 1840, palm oil exports increased by a factor of 25, from 800 to 20,000 tons per year. This line was extended to Oshogbo, 100 kilometres (62mi) away, in 19051907, and to Zungeru and Minna in 19081911. Unification meant only the loose affiliation of three distinct regional administrations into which Nigeria was subdividedNorthern, Western and Eastern regions. These courts contained majorities British members and represented a new level of presumptive British sovereignty in the Bight of Biafra. Significantly, the regional governments controlled public expenditures derived from revenues raised within each region. The slave trade was heaviest in the period 17001850, with an average of 76,000 people taken from Africa each year between 1783 and 1792. Samori Ture 7. In 1929, this incident in Nigeria later became one of the reasons for the fight against colonial rule in Africa A) The Nigerian Oil crisis B) The Aba Women's Revolt C) . tax. One continues to wonder how a national history could be attained The economy suffered from the decline in the slave trade, although considerable smuggling of slaves to the Americas continued for years afterward. They received attention from major parties before elections, at which time either a dominant party from another region or the opposition party in their region sought their alliance. [9] Administration and military control of the territory was conducted primarily by white Britons, both in London and in Nigeria. Portuguese Roman Catholic priests who accompanied traders and officials to the West African coast introduced Christianity to the Edo Empire in the fifteenth century. It continued to enjoy special privileges and maintained a de facto monopoly over commerce. They selected an increasingly high proportion of African clergy for the missions. The present attempt is to inquire into the educational policy of colonial Nigeria, the aim, the nature and process of educational development and how it affected women in Nigeria. Dike, K. O. The Emirs and chiefs who are appointed will rule over the people as of old-time and take such taxes as are approved by the High Commissioner, but they will obey the laws of the Governor and will act in accordance with the advice of the Resident. "Specifically, the Company sought to secure the cooperation of the traditional rulers in ensuring peaceful conditions for trade. In the 1870s, therefore, George Taubman Goldie began amalgamating companies into the United African Company, soon renamed the National African Company. Critics, including representatives of the Middle Belt who resented Muslim domination, were relegated to small, peripheral parties or to inconsequential separatist movements.[85]. Afeadie, "The Hidden Hand of Overrule" (1996), p. 1921. Among the problems needing attention before the British would grant full independence was the minorities fear of discrimination by a future government based on majority ethnic groups. Published August 7, 2020. We also understand that the said National African Company (limited) have full power to mine, farm, and build in any portion of our territory. Out of reverence for traditional kingship, for instance, the Oba of Benin, whose office was closely identified with Edo religion, was accepted as the sponsor of a Yoruba political movement. Despite conquering villages by burning houses and crops, continual political control over the Igbo remained elusive. After 1940, political activities were broadened to include more people. Although lacking Azikiwe's compelling personality, Awolowo was a formidable debater as well as a vigorous and tenacious political campaigner. The principal figure in the political activity that ensued was Herbert Macauley, often referred to as the father of Nigerian nationalism. The war years brought a polarization between the older, more parochial leaders inclined toward gradualism and the younger intellectuals, who thought in more immediate terms. During the war, union membership increased sixfold to 30,000. [67], This system, in which the structure of authority focused on the emir to whom obedience was a mark of religious devotion, did not welcome change. An extensive immigrant population of southerners, especially Igbo, already were living in the north; they dominated clerical positions and were active in many trades. In 1957, the Western and the Eastern regions became formally self-governing under the parliamentary system. Internal self-government was granted to the Western and Eastern regions in 1957. Nigerian students abroad, particularly at British schools, joined those from other colonies in pan-African groups such as the West African Students Union, founded in London in 1925. In the Eastern Region, appointed officials who were given "warrants" and hence called warrant chiefs, were strongly resisted by the people because they lacked traditional claims. In: Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs: (1999), vol. Lagos remained the capital of the south, with Zungeru the new capital of the north. Quiz. But the history of Nigerian demands for greater representation go back to the 1920s. The government was responsible to a Parliament composed of the popularly elected 312-member House of Representatives and the 44-member Senate, chosen by the regional legislatures. At the same time it is feasible by degrees to bring them gradually into approximation with our ideas of justice and humanity. From 1790 to 1807, predominantly British slave traders purchased 1,0002,000 slaves each year in Lagos alone. With the exception of Brandenburg-Prussia's short-lived attempt to gain a foothold on the West African coast and to participate in the 17th-century transatlantic slave trade, German colonialism began only in the 1880s. It is not a federal state with federal Executive, Legislature and finances, like the Leewards. 1. [45], A campaign against the Sokoto Caliphate began in 1900 with the creation of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria, under the direction of Governor Lugard. The basic economic units in each town were "houses", family-operated entities that engendered loyalty for its employees. Men such as Balewa believed that only by overcoming political and economic backwardness could the NPC protect the foundations of traditional northern authority against the influence of the more advanced south. Read suggested they be merged, and more use made of Nigeria's natural resources. The goal of activists initially was not self-determination, but increased participation on a regional level in the governmental process. Although Nigeria came under the British charter in 1885 and was . The 1922 constitution provided Nigerians with the chance to elect a handful of representatives to the Legislative Council. At its own request the Northern region was not given internal self-government until 1959, because northerners feared that their region might lose its claim to an equal share in the operation and opportunities of the federal government if it was not given time to catch up with the educationally advanced south. [12] Trade was also conducted through a mechanism of barter and credit. By the end of the Napoleonic Wars, it ended slavery in its possessions. In the Northern Cameroons, however, the largely Muslim electorate chose to merge with Nigeria's Northern Region. The election of the House of Representatives after the adoption of the 1954 constitution gave the NPC a total of seventy-nine seats, all from the Northern Region. [11], The British led a series of military campaigns to enlarge its sphere of influence and expand its commercial opportunities. Some indigenous peoples, such as those in the Americas, were forced to move to reservations or killed outright by invading European colonizers. Lugard informed the leaders of conquered Sokoto: The Fulani in old times [] conquered this country. But in the 1700s, the Bight of Benin (also known as the Slave Coast) became the next most important hub. The NPC federal parliamentary leader, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa, was appointed Prime Minister of Nigeria. In 1920, portions of former German Cameroon were mandated to Britain by the League of Nations and were administered as part of Nigeria. Lugard, replacing Egerton as Governor, aborted the project in May 1913. Economic competition among these "houses" was so fierce that trade often erupted into an armed battle between the crews of the large canoes. Its activist membership was drawn from local government and emirate officials who had access to means of communication and to repressive traditional authority that could keep the opposition in line. [18], In 1807, the Parliament of the United Kingdom enacted the Slave Trade Act, prohibiting British subjects from participating in the Atlantic slave trade. He definitely laid the basis for British claims. The Colonial Era (1882-1960) British colonialism began under the pretense of policing the slave trade. Nigeria officially became a democracy on its independence from Britain in October 1960. All were knighted. The NPC, entering candidates only in the Northern Region, confined campaigning largely to local issues but opposed the addition of new regimes. The Colony was ultimately governed by the British Colonial Office in London. [37] Economically, local colonial administrators also pushed for the imposition of British colonial rule, believing that trade and taxation conducted in British pounds would prove far more lucrative than a barter trade which yielded only inconsistent customs duties. While each generated considerable political controversy, they moved the country toward greater internal autonomy, with an increasing role for the political parties. Some European traders switched to legitimate business only when the commerce in slaves became too hazardous. In February 1961, a plebiscite was conducted to determine the disposition of the Southern Cameroons and Northern Cameroons, which were administered by Britain as United Nations Trust Territories. The Macpherson constitution, promulgated in 1951, provided for a central House of Representatives, but friction between the central and regional legislatures, related to the question of where supreme party authority lay, soon caused a breakdown. [11][12], In 1900, the British Government assumed control of the Southern and Northern Protectorates, both of which were ultimately governed by the Colonial Office at Whitehall. Sir Richmond Palmer, acting as Lieutenant Governor in the North, disagreed with Clifford and advocated the principles of Lugard and further decentralisation. As before, Aro merchants dominated trade in the hinterland, including palm products to the coast and the sale of slaves within Igboland. He insisted on maintaining the territorial integrity of the Northern Region. ", Simon Heap, "'We think prohibition is a farce': drinking in the alcohol-prohibited zone of colonial northern Nigeria. [63], The Protectorate was centrally administered by the Colonial Civil Service, staffed by Britons and Africans called the British Native Staffmany of whom originated from outside the territory. [13], The Colonial Office accepted Lugard's proposal that the Governor would not be required to stay in-country full-time; consequently, as Governor, Lugard spent four months out of the year in London. Nigeria: ColonizationKatie Graham. In the Bight of Biafra, the major ports were Old Calabar (Akwa Akpa), Bonny and New Calabar. [73] In direct reaction to the epidemic, colonial authorities allowed African doctors and medical personnel to work with influenza patients due to the severity of the situation. Clifford also believed that indirect rule encouraged centripetal tendencies. After the Willink Commission examined and reported on this issue in 1958, independence was granted. The southern protectorate was divided into two provinces in 1939Western and Easternand in 1954 they, along with the northern protectorate, were renamed the Western, Eastern, and Northern regions as part of Nigerias reconstruction into a federal state. Demanding immediate self-government, the Action Group was opposed by the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC), which was composed largely of northerners and headed by several leaders, including Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. After initially adopting an indirect rule approach, in 1906 the British merged the small Lagos Colony and the Southern Nigeria Protectorate into a new Colony of Southern Nigeria, and in 1914 that was combined with the Northern Nigeria Protectorate to form the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria. During the war, the colonial government earmarked a large portion of the Nigerian budget as a contribution to imperial defence. THE COLONIAL ECONOMIC LEGACY. A constabulary force was raised and used to pacify the coastal area. [73] The colonial government would enact new legislation in reaction to the pandemic including, travel passes for individuals in the colony, increased usage of sanitary practices, and door to door checks on indigenous Nigerian households. Lagos was annexed as a Crown Colony in 1861 via the Lagos Treaty of Cession.[30]. Between 1919 and 1954 the title reverted to governor. . The trade subsequently continued under the Portuguese Empire. Early British Imperialism. 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