A closer reading of the objects on display, however, reveals a nuanced and conflicted history, the impact of which is still palpable today. Furthermore, Nkrumah feared close relations with the Soviets would lead to a neo-colonialist relationship. Trenton, NJ: Africa World Press, 2004. It was evident from the very beginning of African independence that individual leaders accepted a form of socialism based on the humanistic aspects of that ideology. Mengistu urgently needed help. It exposes the shortcomings of so-called African socialism in practice. Soviets and Americans were not the only outside actors on the stage of decolonization. Such ideas also were introduced to African students in their formal European-based education systems. Most socialist systems today are participatory democracies. LGBTI Minorities and Queer Politics in Eastern and Souther Maasai and Maa-Speaking Peoples of East Africa, The, Modern African Literature in European Languages, Northeastern African States, c. 1000 BCE-1800 CE, Political Science and the Study of Africa, Postcolonial Sub-Saharan African Politics, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Africa, Social and Cultural Anthropology and the Study of Africa, States of the Zimbabwe Plateau and Zambezi Valley, Swahili City-States of the East African Coast. By 1965, Cuba became a fully communist country and developed close ties to the Soviet Union. As US president Dwight D Eisenhower explained to Winston Churchill in 1954: We are falsely pictured as the exploiters of people, the Soviets as their champions. It would be foolhardy, he warned, to ignore the fierce and growing spirit of nationalism spreading across Africa and Asia. [19] During the Nasser years, many young Egyptians studied in Soviet universities and military schools. But he also accepted Soviet weaponry for his army. After 1945, the pace of change quickened. In 1945, Africa was controlled by the friends and clients of the United StatesBritain, France, Portugal, Belgium, and Spain. ", Sergei Mazov, "Soviet Aid to the Gizenga Government in the Former Belgian Congo (196061) as Reflected in Russian Archives. When it was published, this book was considered perhaps the most authoritative analysis on African socialism. Throughout the Cold War the United States and the Soviet Union avoided direct military confrontation in Europe and engaged in actual combat operations only to keep allies from defecting to the other side or to overthrow them after they had done so. Get 6 issues for 19.99 and receive a 10 gift card* PLUS free access to HistoryExtra.com, Save 70% on the shop price when you subscribe today - Get 13 issues for just $49.99 + FREE access to HistoryExtra.com, Snuffed out democracies and poisoned toothpaste: how the Cold War wreaked havoc in post-colonial Africa, Cold War conflicts played havoc with African politics and snuffed out many fledgling democracies, The CIA brought dollars - and a hitman with poisoned toothpaste. However, most of its attempts to spread Communism were initially focused on Europe and this did not prevent Lenin and Stalin from trying to force all the former territories of the Russian Empire into the Soviet Union. Among them was the future president, Hosni Mubarak, who went for training in a military pilot school in Kant Air Base, Kyrgyzstan. In this period the Soviets unsuccessfully blockaded the Western-held sectors of West Berlin (194849); the United States and its European allies formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a unified military command to resist the Soviet presence in Europe (1949); the Soviets exploded their first atomic warhead (1949), thus ending the American monopoly on the atomic bomb; the Chinese communists came to power in mainland China (1949); and the Soviet-supported communist government of North Korea invaded U.S.-supported South Korea in 1950, setting off an indecisive Korean War that lasted until 1953. Allied in 1969, but soon French Indochina. The Soviet Union withdrew its Ambassador after the Sharpeville massacre in 1960. United States participation in the Southeast Asia War resulted from the policy of "containment," which aimed to prevent communism from expanding beyond its early Cold War borders. [11], By the 1960s both the Soviets and the Chinese were angling for Algerian attention. In Angola a war of succession followed, with three rival nationalist parties fighting for power. ", Arthur J. Klinghoffer, "The Soviet Union and Angola," (Army War College, 1980), Omajuwa Igho Natufe, "The cold war and the Congo crisis, 1960-1961. Throughout the ferocious Algerian War of Independence in the 1950s, Moscow provided military, technical and material assistance to the FLN, and trained hundreds of its military leaders in the USSR. Angola is a country in southwest Africa. The following year, when Vice-President Richard Nixon returned from an African tour he reported that French patronage and influence in north Africa are decreasing at an alarming rate. Spread of Communism Birth of the USA American Constitution American Independence War Causes of the American Revolution Democratic Republican Party General Thomas Gage biography Intolerable Acts Loyalists Powers of the President Quebec Act Seven Years' War Stamp Act Tea Party Cold War Battle of Dien Bien Phu Brezhnev Doctrine Brezhnev Era The favorite technique therefore was to identify the Soviet Union with the rising tide of nationalism to demonstrate that they in Moscow were engaged in a common struggle against Western imperialism. this page. USSR retreat from Afghanistan and stop funding communist militias in Africa. Please subscribe or login. In September 1981, the last relations were severed by the Egyptian government accusing Soviet leadership of trying to undermine Sadat's leadership in retaliation to the Israeli-Egyptian peace treaty. One way by which the Soviets could win friends in the continent, as well as spread the Marxist-Leninist gospel among its future leaders, was to offer scholarships for Africans to study at universities in the Soviet Union and Warsaw Pact countries. South Africa was also, as US President Ronald Reagan remarked in 1981, essential to the free world in its production of minerals we all must have. (2009) 7#5 pp 1259-1268. Cold War priorities dictated events in southern Africa, too. Africans were losers in the Cold War. The Kremlin supported Gizenga, but did not want to take the international risks involved in delivering material aid to the blockaded Orientale Province. The following day, a huge sea and air assault, supporting landings of British tanks and marines, succeeded in taking the port. There was no great Soviet strategy for taking over Africa, and generally the Soviet Union was under informed about history, political structures and the needs of the countries it supported. There was a sense of freedom, of liberation, as palpable in the streets as in the Mozambicans we met, remembers anthropologist Nadine Wanono, then a student of French cultural ethnographer, Jean Rouch, with whom she travelled to Mozambique in 1978, to teach Super 8 film techniques to FRELIMOs post-independence government. Listen Key words: Africa, Cold War, colonialism, USA, USSR, foreign policy, poli tics Castro growled about betrayal, but acquiesced. It is argued that populist thinkers Nyerere, Cabral, and Fanon shared a common passion for a brand of socialism that was democratic and rooted in precolonial traditions as well as in Marxist-Leninist theory. This edited volume seeks to evaluate what is termed the second wave of socialist experiments in Africa. The United States offered Africas new rulers what they needed to keep power: modern security systems. From the late 1950s, Africans seeking higher education went to a rapidly increasing number of destinations, both within Africa and overseas. During this trip he famously criticised Kodak film stock for being inherently racist. In other places, such as Madagascar, Benin, Congo-Brazzaville, and Zimbabwe, leaders of independent regimes merely claimed to be Marxist-Leninist, without usually developing policies consistent with a firm commitment to a particular ideological or institutional persuasion. Maxim Matusevich, "Revisiting the Soviet Moment in Sub-Saharan Africa" History Compass. Abboud declared himself an enemy of communism and of the Soviet-supported Nasser. [17] The involvement of the Soviets split the Congolese government and led to an impasse between Lumumba and conservative President Joseph Kasa-Vubu, who was anti-communist. Cold War Alliances& Leaders. The South African government's stand found support in the Portuguese colonial regimes of Angola and Mozambique, which hung on until 1975, and the white government of Ian Smith in Rhodesia (modern Zimbabwe), which only yielded to majority rule in 1980.All these regimes equated political opposition with a desire to overthrow capitalism and nationalise the private sector. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1964. In 1991, USSR implode and the 15 republics become independent states, marking therefore the end of the cold war. The internecine conflicts within Mozambique, Angola and the DRC, which had been stoked by Cold War powers, were now gathering a momentum of their own. The 15 new states are: Russia Estonia Latvia Although the communist ideas and arguments of such European theorists as Marx and Engels have been around since just before the turn of the 20th century, they have never been widespread in Africa. Radu, Michael, and Arthur Jay Klinghoffer. under Siad Barre. [34][35] Around this time, the South African military's Armscor had a team of experts working in Leningrad involved in jet engine development.[36][34]. As Soviet and American patronage (and arms) spread across the continent, Nyerere warned that a second scramble for Africa by Russia and its satellites was under way. This changed after 1945. Castro had learned from Guatemala, and was able to thwart a coup attempt in 1961. However, the African nationalist movement was led by the better educated young middle-class that had little exposure to communism or socialism. Japan. In fact, Emmanuel Macron, President of France, described NATO as 'brain dead' in 2019. The Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (its Portuguese name abbreviated to MPLA), led by Agostinho Neto who became the newly independent nations first president, was backed by the Soviet Union which, in return, was allowed to establish a naval base at the countrys capital, Luanda. Orwell understood it as a nuclear stalemate between super-states: each possessed weapons of mass destruction and was capable of annihilating the other. On the other hand, both ideology and realpolitik led the Soviet Union to support those who fought for independence. and a postdoctoral research fellow at the University of Warwick. By 1976, the military sphere was the pivot of Angolan-Soviet relations. The South African government's stand found support in the Portuguese colonial regimes of Angola and Mozambique, which hung on until 1975, and the white government of Ian Smith in Rhodesia (modern Zimbabwe), which only yielded to majority rule in 1980. was similarly supported The subsequent . There, everyone was equal! Patrice Lumumba Peoples' Friendship University was established in Moscow in 1960 to provide higher education to students from developing countries. This month, as part of its Red Africa research project, Calvert 22 , a London-based, Russian-financed foundation, presents Things Fall Part, a nostalgic exhibition of various artworks drawing on the legacy of the friendships between Africa, the Soviet Union and related countries during the Cold War. Idahosa, P.L.E. The Populist Dimension to African Political Thought: Critical Essays in Reconstruction and Retrieval. The truth is nuanced. After South Africa became a republic in 1961 and was expelled from the Commonwealth of Nations, relations were very cold. After 1962, it fought hard to prevent communist China from developing its own countervailing presence. In the mid-1950s, two developments signaled the arrival of the Cold War in North Africa: the Algerian War of independence against France began in November 1954; and Egypt adopted an independent foreign policy, challenging British influence in the Middle East, helping the Algerian rebels, and buying weapons from the Soviet bloc. US-backed rebels came to Cuban shores in what became a high-profile embarrassment for the US known as the "Bay of Pigs." Outside of China and the USSR, Cubaan island about the size of Floridawas perhaps the most influential communist nation during the Cold War. Will China rule the world? By 1969 President Julius Nyerere, a self-declared African socialist, had accepted equipment worth over US$640,000 from the US for his police force, all of whom were members of the ruling Tanganyika African National Union Party. Feuchtwanger, Edgar, and Peter Nailor, eds. Nationalist movements more closely aligned with the major Communist regimes, the USSR and China, did not begin to surface until the 1970s, particularly in Lusophone Africa (Angola, Mozambique, and Guinea Bissau) and Ethiopia, where liberation revolutionary movements developed. Their main aim was not socialist revolution, but to be free of military aggression from South Africa and see independence with majority rule throughout the continent. Our Own Special Brand of Socialism: Algeria and the Contest of Modernities in the 1960s., Desai, Ram. [5] In the early 1960s the KGB and the GRU began focusing more intelligence operations on Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Between the two world wars, some Africans lived and work in Europe, and this experience produced many of the leaders and intelligentsia who would return to Africa with ideas about how to change their own societies and end colonial rule. These are some of the communist countries during the Cold War era.. * Angola * * The Cuban troops and the Soviets supported Angola for their war on independence and in return Angola adopted communism. The authors contend that, in practice, the aspiring ideology did not provide a clear strategy for social transformation after colonialism. The communist governments of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union collapsed between 1989 and 1991. The list of external actors also includes the other Scandinavian countries, Yugoslavia, Moscows Eastern European clients, Egypt, and the Peoples Republic of China. But the crisis also hardened the Soviets determination never again to be humiliated by their military inferiority, and they began a buildup of both conventional and strategic forces that the United States was forced to match for the next 25 years. The upshot was that the countrys resources remained an asset of the west, and the DRC endured five years of civil war. "Soviet training and research programs for Africa." Britain was anxious that power in Africa was handed to dependable politicians. Copy this link, or click below to email it to a friend. The Cold War had solidified by 1947-48, when U.S. aid provided under the Marshall Plan to western Europe had brought those countries under American influence and the Soviets had installed openly communist regimes in eastern Europe. Until the death of Stalin in 1953, the Soviet Union showed very little interest in Africa. However, these alliances were made primarily because they offered material support to the movement or dominant party in a regime, rather than being based on a clear and consistent acceptance of the guiding ideology of either the Western or Communist partner. The United States treated Angola and Mozambique as strategic assets, arming the 200,000 Portuguese conscripts who fought a long-running war against local nationalist insurgents with an imported arsenal including napalm and defoliants. The Americans and the British worried that Soviet domination in eastern Europe might be permanent. This period also coincided with the time of the Cold War . The confrontation that followed, known as the Cuban missile crisis, brought the two superpowers to the brink of war before an agreement was reached to withdraw the missiles. South African white politicians routinely denounced the ANC as a devious communist plot to overthrow the government. This book presents an analysis of the scope and quality of a select number of African states that came to espouse Marxism-Leninism or scientific socialism during their heyday. Infuriated by Soviet support for the Ethiopians, Somalia annulled its treaty with the Soviet Union and expelled all Soviet advisors in the country. However, nowhere on the continent was a strict form of communism ever practiced. Before the Cold War only one country had and dropped a nuclear bomb, but that would not be the case during the Cold War. African form of socialism, drawing on African traditions than following Neither Britain nor France would acknowledge their weaknesses. But Nasser was an ideal ally in Khrushchevs new policy of challenging the west in Africa. Our editors will review what youve submitted and determine whether to revise the article. The link was not copied. In the mid-1950s, two developments signaled the arrival of the Cold War in North Africa: the Algerian War of independence against France began in November 1954; and Egypt adopted an independent foreign policy, challenging British influence in the Middle East, helping the Algerian rebels, and buying weapons from the Soviet bloc. ", Philip E. Muehlenbeck, "Kennedy and Toure: A success in personal diplomacy. Historically, communism on the continent was strongest in Egypt, Sudan, Algeria, and South Africa, which had significant European settlement, but such ideas remained foreign to the African masses until the principles of Marxism-Leninism became popular among intellectuals around the time of World War I (Drew 2014). Under pressure from independence movements . For its part the Soviet Union was happy to give military support to the governments of Angola and Mozambique and to the ANC. Second it wanted to gain a voice in African affairs, primarily by supporting local communist parties, and providing economic and military aid to the governments. Liberation movements across southern Africa were sustained by the Soviet Union and Cuba, which sent large contingents of troops to support independence fighters. It meant a return to the Cold War. It was left to the last leader of a communist Soviet Union, Mikhail Gorbachev, to disengage from Africa. by the West for making a public stand against Communism, while at the Communist regimes began to collapse in eastern Europe, and democratic governments rose in East Germany, Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia, followed by the reunification of West and East Germany under NATO auspices. Soviet Union. The Soviet Union and Cuba provided weapons and training camps for African National Congress guerrillas fighting black oppression by the apartheid government. "The explosion of African studies in the Soviet Union. The onset of the Cold War added a sense of urgency. China has lashed out at a new U_S_ House committee dedicated to countering Beijing, demanding its members discard their ideological bias and zero-sum Cold War mentality., Russias reintegration into the world of sports one year after the invasion of Ukraine began threatens to create the biggest rift in the Olympic movement since the Cold War, Arne Treholt, the former Norwegian Foreign Ministry official who was convicted of spying for the Soviet Union in what became Norways biggest Cold War espionage scandal has died in his Moscow home, When a giant Chinese balloon made an uninvited visit to the United States, U.S. Defense Secretary Lloyd Austin turned to a hotline system set up with Beijing to defuse the situation. Increasingly complex international relationships developed as a result, and smaller countries became more resistant to superpower cajoling. It is argued that these states can be divided into orthodox and heterodox categories depending on how closely their governments aligned with the thinking of the Russian Communist Party. Afterwards, US secretary of state John Foster Dulles concluded that it was now imperative for America to fill the vacuum of power which the British filled for a century. In sub-Saharan Africa the colonial powers faced no major challenges until the late 1950s. By midnight, British and French troops had secured the canal zone and sparked fury from the United States and the Soviet Union. AFRICAN Expand or collapse the "in this article" section, Communism, Marxist-Leninism, and Socialism in Africa, African Nationalist Movements and Communism, Marxism-Leninism and Crafting a Path to Liberation, Early African Postcolonial States and Liberation Movements and Socialism, Expand or collapse the "related articles" section, Expand or collapse the "forthcoming articles" section, Art, Art History, and the Study of Africa, British Colonial Rule in Sub-Saharan Africa, Development of Early Farming and Pastoralism, Early States And State Formation In Africa, Eastern Africa and the South Asian Diaspora, Great Lakes States of Eastern Africa, The, Health, Medicine, and the Study of Africa, Historiography and Methods of African History, Indian Ocean and Middle Eastern Slave Trades, Kongo and the Coastal States of West Central Africa. Washington followed suit. Above all, it is the USA that most profits from the war. Havana provided military and civilian assistance. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). became a Marxist Leninist state in 1970, From 1960, the Soviet Union became involved in several Marxist, African struggles, providing political support, weapons and military training, including to the People's Movement for the Liberation. While this nation has a predominantly black population, for most of the 20th century it was ruled by a white African minority . At this point, the United States was in a quandary. In Kenyas villages, for example, young demobbed soldiers expressed their new confidence by scoffing at their chiefs and tribal elders. What were practiced were hybrid forms of socialism, including some that eclectically borrowed from Marxist-Leninist and Maoist theory. Gabriel Garcia Marquez later wrote: In that fleeting, anonymous passage through Africa, Che Guevara was to sow a seed that no one will destroy.. Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Moscows propagandists portrayed Nasser as a champion of oppressed peoples in their worldwide struggle against imperialism and capitalism. The West was willing to turn a blind eye to institutionalised racism and minority rule government, if that meant keeping commercial and mining investments safe from nationalisation. under Agostinho Neto and Eduardo dos Santos. The Cold War in Africa had ended. Rosberg, Carl, and Thomas Callaghy, eds. London: Zed, 1986. The two superpowers soon signed the Nuclear Test-Ban Treaty of 1963, which banned aboveground nuclear weapons testing. President Dwight D. Eisenhower was hostile to Tour, so the African nation quickly turned to the Soviet Unionmaking it the Kremlin's first success story in Africa. Both superpowers had been wooing Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser first the US, which offered then withdrew financial support for the construction of an Aswan dam, then the Soviet Union, which sold Egypt large quantities of arms. [15] During 1956-1986, as part of the long South African Border War (1966-1990), the Soviets supplied and trained combat units from Namibia (SWAPO) and Angola (MPLA) at the African National Congress (ANC) military training camps in Tanzania. The Cold War was waged on political, economic, and propaganda fronts and had only limited recourse to weapons. You could not be signed in, please check and try again. But the significance of this in domestic politics was only felt after the Second World War.After 1945, Africa became caught up in the confrontation between America and the Soviet Union, the so-called Cold War. Goodman, Melvin A. Gorbachev and Soviet Policy in the Third World" (1990) . changed sides to become violently anti-Soviet. Others were appalled by everyday racism: one was asked by Russians whether Africans lived in houses. Britain, France, Belgium and Portugal were valuable Nato allies but, if they persisted in resisting African nationalist movements or delaying independence, they were offering the Soviet Union a propaganda bonus. All thanks to the Putin regime's invasion of Ukraine. Ottaway, Marina, and David Ottaway. This page was last edited on 29 January 2023, at 09:44. He went into exile, followed by 1,000 of his Soviet advisors. By entering your details, you are agreeing to our terms and conditions and privacy policy. The way forward for Africa in the aftermath of the Cold War - the decades-long struggle for supremacy between communist Soviet Union and capitalist US - was uncertain. Afterwards he made oblique approaches towards the US. Joseph Stalin considered Africa to be low priority and discouraged relationships with or studies of the continent. This award-winning book provides a useful framework for analyzing various forms of socialist ideologies and institutional choice in Africa from the 1960s to the 1980s. The Cold War began after the surrender of Nazi Germany in 1945, when the uneasy alliance between the United States and Great Britain on the one hand and the Soviet Union on the other started to fall apart. James Mulira, "The role of the Soviet Union in the decolonization process of Africa: from Lenin to Brezhnev. The Soviets, on the other hand, were determined to maintain control of eastern Europe in order to safeguard against any possible renewed threat from Germany, and they were intent on spreading communism worldwide, largely for ideological reasons. Fidel Castro sent 300,000 Cuban troops to Africa to support fellow revolutionaries against Western imperialism. But for many leaders, it made more sense to evolve an While every effort has been made to follow citation style rules, there may be some discrepancies. The Congo, Decolonization, and the Cold War, 1960-1965. Thus, the superpowers were very much responsible for the emergence of communist orientations in some African nationalist movements. During the 1950s Mau Mau uprising in Kenya, for example, MI5 investigated possible Soviet involvement but, when questioned, bewildered tribesmen asked: What does a Russian look like? and Can Russians speak Swahili? Clearly, the KGB was making little headway in east Africa. To gain a lasting presence on the continent. ", Gebru Tareke, "The Ethiopia-Somalia war of 1977 revisited. Moscow said it proved that a backward society could become revolutionary by adopting a Leninist system. Cold War conflicts played havoc with African politics. for the very few. Africa-Soviet Union relations covers the diplomatic, political, military, and cultural relationships between the Soviet Union and Africa from the 1945 to 1991. 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